This question prompted me to collect together and write up some of my own research that addresses this question.
The Preparation of a Habitable World
In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth. (Genesis 1:1, ESV)
Young's Literal Translation presents a variation of this rendering by following the original Hebrew literally: In the beginning of God's preparing the heavens and the earth
Some commentators suggest that "the heavens and the earth" is a merism referring to the whole frame and furniture of the universe.
Paul focuses us on the world as experienced by mankind, teaching that the God who made the world and everything in it, being Lord of heaven and earth, does not live in temples made by man, nor is he served by human hands, as though he needed anything, since he himself gives to all mankind life and breath and everything. (Acts 17:24-25)
What we see is that the purpose of God in preparing this creation is to create a habitat for life, to fill that habitat, and especially to enter into relationship with mankind with the intent to bless mankind. Today, when we think of the heavens and the earth, we don't just think of the land on which we live and the skies overhead. Instead, we think of our planet, Earth, with a core, mantle, continents, oceans, and atmosphere. Some might even think of the protective magnetic shield generated in the core of our planet. We might think of Earth orbiting the Sun and being orbited itself by the Moon. We might think of how the Earth belongs to the solar system that exists within a galaxy, among many other galaxies, in a very large Universe. It might seem that when viewed scientifically, all of this goes far beyond what is referred to in Scripture. And yet, we can also understand, scientifically, that all these parts, from how the Universe as a whole is formed, to the nature of our star, the Sun, to the particular characteristics of the Moon and the magnetic field generated by Earth's core, have been prepared by God so that mankind can have life and breath and everything he needs.
Proverbs tells it this way: The LORD possessed me [Wisdom] at the beginning of his work, the first of his acts of old. Ages ago I [Wisdom] was set up, at the first, before the beginning of the earth. At the end of this creation psalm, it states: and I [Wisdom] was daily his [the LORD's] delight, rejoicing before Him always, rejoicing in his inhabited world and delighting in the children of man. And now, O sons, listen to me [Wisdom]: blessed are those who keep my ways. Proverbs 8: 22-23, 30-32
In John Walton's The Lost World of Genesis One (TLWOGO), the proposition is put forth that the cosmos (however that may be defined) is created as a temple (pp. 77-85) for the worship and glory of God.
So, a serious question then arises. Can Genesis 1:1-2:4 be viewed as the stages of preparation of that temple?
Is Genesis 1 Cosmic History?
Does Genesis 1 reflect the actual history of the formation of the Earth into a habitable planet, or is it instead written as a framework for contemplating the works of God?
John Walton puts forth the question as a dichotomy: "Is the account of creation the description of a manufacturing process or the communication of a concept?" (p. 17, The Lost World of Genesis 1)
We can consider Exodus 25 and beyond that contains considerable information on the construction and furnishing of the Tabernacle as instructed by Moses. We can look to 1 Kings chapters 5-7 and other passages that contain very detailed instructions on preparing for, manufacturing, and furnishing the temple built under the reign of Solomon.
It is not out of the question that Moses, in presenting Genesis 1:1-2:4, provided some insight into some of the steps God took in creating the cosmos for human habitation, service, and worship. I think John Walton's question can likely be answered with, "yes, and yes." I find the text to be sufficiently rich to communicate both history and theological truths and concepts.
What follows then is the presentation of some of my research into the history of Earth as it was prepared for human habitation. Certainly we see that other planets and bodies, such as Mars, Venus, and the Moon, are not habitable worlds. I address this question, What happened on Earth that enables humans to live here?
Furthermore, Earth was originally not habitable itself, formed as a lifeless world. When life did first appear on Earth, the Earth still was not immediately habitable by human beings. The Earth became more habitable in stages. Is it possible that these stages correspond to the works of God as described in the Bible? Is any such correlation simply circumstantial, merely a product of cherry-picking data points? How can we know the difference?
In Walton's The Lost World of Genesis 1, his Proposition 2 argues for a functional rather than material view of the creation narrative. Following this lead, I look at habitability as a functional indicator. Therefore, when we look at data points regarding the history of Earth, and for major phases of Earth's history, we will evaluate them with a view toward habitability, and especially habitability for human beings. This provides an objective criteria.
In short, I am seeking to provide a historical (vs. scientific) concordant model of the origin of the functional ability of planet Earth to support a habitat in which human beings can thrive.
Of course, no human beings were present during the vast majority of Earth's history. Therefore, my model [the AOJ model] leverages scientific discoveries about the history of Earth in order to build its concordant model. What makes my model distinct compared to some other views based on scientific concordism is the focus on the history of Earth's habitability.
For a helpful backgrounder read The Various Meanings of Concordism which describes Type A, B, and C concordism. Here, I start with a "Type B" approach and try to learn from John H. Walton whether the my approach can be posited as a "Type C" model.
Comparing Models (a. k. a. Stories) of Earth's History
To try to address questions about Earth's past, I first create a scientific model of Earth's history and a model of the Genesis 1:1-2:4 creation account and then compare those models to see where they might align and where they might clash.
I compare the models based on the following data (the Ages of Joy models) to competing models created by Reasons to Believe (the RTB models). I also show how Young Earth creationists handle the geologic data and how secular stories of the history of the Earth are presented in educational settings. I regard Genesis 1 as a revealed story of the history of the Earth presented in instructional, religious settings.
It is important to acknowledge that we can find many summaries of Earth's 4.5 billion year history written up in a page or two or presented in a chart or a graphic with a dozen or so critical details and created for secular instruction. In every case, the author is forced to choose a select few events or descriptions to relate out of the thousands or even millions of discovered facts that could be highlighted. Often the author has chosen the particular details for a reason while excluding others. The overriding concern is brevity. The account in Genesis 1:1-2:4 faces a similar constraint - it is brief. Therefore, it necessarily excludes many details. Therefore, two accounts of Earth's history can both represent true facts while at the same time painting very different pictures. The primary concern with the AOJ model is to examine both Scriptural and scientific creation accounts with an eye toward the preparation of Earth as a habitat for human thriving.
Modeling Cosmic History
One of the organizational tools scientists use when studying the history of the Earth is to identify and characterize timespans that cover that history. These are designed to somewhat align to major transition points in Earth's history. I say somewhat, because often the timespans are demarcated by ease of identification rather than by relative significance. Only after detailed analysis can the characteristics of each time span really be understood and their significance realized. In the meantime, the timespan names are convenient for reference. Often, details of the ancient past remain murky for decades and much still remains to be learned.
The various time spans used in geochronology are as follows:
Eons (4 total, each of 500 MY or more)
Eras (10, several hundred MY each)
Periods (22, 10-100 MY each)
Epochs (34, 10s of MY each)
Age (99, millions of years)
In the AOJ cosmic history model, an attempt is made to map the 8 timespans of Genesis 1:1-2:4 (the beginning, the 6 creation days, and the day of rest/post-creation timeframe) to the time spans used for geochronology. AOJ accepts that some form of the Big Bang Theory is likely adequate for creation science models and AOJ accepts the current age of the Universe to be 13.8 billion years. That said, the AOJ cosmic history model is primarily concerned with the history of the solar system starting at about 4600 million years ago and especially with conditions on the surface of planet Earth over that timespan.
There is a very interesting and important phenomena that is apparent in exploring Earth's history. That is that from the standpoint of significance to human interest, change occurs much more rapidly as time advances. For example, some scientists refer to the time from 1.8 to 0.8 billion years ago (Ga) as the Boring Billion calling it the dullest time in Earth's history. It's also well known that it took about 4 billion years to go from a lifeless planet to one that had a diversity of animals, but only 100 million years from that point to have a huge diversity of life all over the planet. So history is decidedly non-linear and that affects how it is divided up and described. More recent time horizons present more details to consider not only because the recent past is easier to study, but also because seemingly more interesting changes were happening.
Gathering the Data
The approach here is to present an interleaved account of Earth's history and Biblical creation passages. Other formats are possible, and this approach is focused around the Ages of Joy model-building methodology. I use this format for my own convenience and provide this as a note for attentive readers. Elements of the Ages of Joy creation model are set off with the label AOJ. Other content is intended to be factual or theoretical information from which the AOJ model is derived.
Note on dates: all dates are approximate and shown in Ma - million anum (years) ago for convenience; therefore significant figures on dates are not rigorously applied. Where used, Ga (giga anum) means billion years ago. ICS where cited below refers to the International Commission on Stratigraphy.
Habitability of Earth for Humans as a Primary Consideration
AOJ: Consider a scale for measuring the ability of human life to thrive on a planet. Consider the early, Hadean Earth to have a thrivability score of 0 and conditions when humans first inhabited the Earth as a 6. Each Day of Creation advanced the habitability and thrivability of Earth by 1. Planets less habitable than early Earth, like Venus, would have a negative score. Venus may have started out as a 0, but ended up at a negative value. Planets like Mars seemingly never got beyond a 1. Planets like Jupiter would always have had a negative score.
Key Events: The Beginning through Day 6
AOJ: THE BEGINNING - AOJ Hadean Eon (4600-3950 Ma)
In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth. The earth was without form and void, and darkness was over the face of the deep. And the Spirit of God was hovering over the face of the waters. (Genesis 1:1-2)
John H. Walton argues that the Hebrew word translated beginning introduces a period of time rather than a point in time, which can be understood by comparing the word's usage in Job 8:7 "And though your beginning was small, your latter days will be very great." Here in context, beginning refers to the former days period of time in contrast to latter days. Walton then argues that beginning refers to the entire seven-day period. However, in the same argument Walton points out that the word can also mean, first installment or first part. TLWOGO, pg. 43.
So, we must consider whether the beginning period (first part) could refer to either the whole seven-day period or to an initial period of time prior to the seven days. We can see this latter sense in the way that the word is used in Job 8:7 in which beginning refers to an initial time period preceding a later time period. In the Genesis 1 narrative, the candidate time periods would be 1) an initial time period during which the Earth lay formless and void and in darkness prior to God saying, "Let there be light" or 2) the first six days prior to the latter seventh day of rest (apparently on-going), or 3) an implied "since then" time period. I don't agree that beginning refers to the whole seven days, because there is no "latter days" in the narrative to set apart from the "former days" and because the seventh day is often considered to be on-going (including the present time). I find option 3 to be weakest option because it leans on an implied contrasting time period rather than an apparent time period provided by option 1 from within the narrative itself.
In the beginning of God's preparing the heavens and the earth -- the earth hath existed waste and void, and darkness [is] on the face of the deep... Genesis 1:1-2a YLT
While Genesis 1:1-2 is rendered several different ways in various translations, Young's Literal Translation captures the sense in which "the earth had existed formless and void" for some unspecified amount of time prior to when the "darkness [is]" on the face of the deep. It is important to note that in the context of the narrative, there are no time keeping elements at work yet. It is in a sense a "timeless", or better yet "untimed", period as far as the story is concerned.
AOJ: The AOJ model considers that the formless and void Earth may have lain in that state for some amount of time awaiting God's action. This conveys the sense that, apart from God's work, the sorry state of formlessness and voidness had no remedy. The beginning conditions, and therefore the time period framed by the word beginning, start to change as soon as God says, "Let there be light."
John Walton spends seven pages arguing that the phrase "tohu wa bohu" translated as "formless and void" refers to a functional rather than material non-existence in the before state.
AOJ: Following Walton's lead somewhat, I interpret the intent of "tohu wa bohu" to communicate that the Earth under its initial conditions was "functionally uninhabitable [tohu-wasteland; place of chaos] and materially uninhabited [bohu-empty; void]". This mutes the pointless argument some raise saying: since "sphere" is a "form" therefore, scientifically speaking, the Earth was never formless, and thus, the Bible is incorrect. I am rejecting Walton's idea that Genesis 1 only addresses functional creation. I am also rejecting the idea that Genesis 1 is primarily concerned with material creation. I think it is a balanced blend in which we see that form [that which is material] follows function because there is a functional purpose for the creation.
AOJ: The Biblical creation account describes conditions on Earth during the beginning period of God creating the Heavens and the Earth that match how scientists describe the earliest period of Earth's history which is called the Hadean Eon.
ICS: ~4600 Ma - 4000 Ma : Hadean Eon per the current "informal" ICS definition
4600 Ma - Stellar ignition of the Sun
4540 Ma - creation of the Earth
4425 Ma - creation of the Moon;
Formation of the moon brought water to Earth (May 2019) or Meteorite study suggests Earth may have been wet since it formed (August 2020)
Geologists determine the early Earth was a 'water world' by studying exposed ocean crust (March 2020) - "...early Earth could have been a 'water world' with submerged continents."
AOJ: Light is produced by the Sun, but the light reaching the Earth is not yet good and the early Earth becomes wrapped in clouds of thick darkness (Job 38:9) caused by volcanic outgassing of water vapor from the interior of the Earth. Some of the water vapor condenses into a liquid water ocean while a low-lying cloud layer remains.
AOJ: Initially, the earth (0776) was formless (08414) and void (0922). Later (v9,10) dry land (03004) will appear and God will call it earth (0776).
In John Walton's The Lost World of Genesis One he asserts, "Through the entire Bible, there is not one single instance in which God revealed to Israel a science beyond their own culture. No passage offers a scientific perspective that was not common to the Old World science of antiquity." p. 17
So does AOJ accept or reject Walton's assertion? Well, I find that this strong statement could lead to a very long debate, because there are many possible instances, each of which would have to be proven to have provided no new insight that could be considered scientific. This would mean that the Holy Spirit never supernaturally inspired a Biblical author to write revealed truth that provided new insight that at the time had to be accepted by faith but which now can be scientifically verified.
The second caution I apply to Walton's statement is that a region exists where science and history overlap. In general terms, historical events are observed phenomena that later investigators can only access forensically, whether by tapping into recorded testimony or analyzing trace artifacts. Therefore, if God revealed that He 1) acted in the past and 2) in the absence of human observers and 3) in such a way that trace artifacts exist pertaining to those past actions, then the revelation of God's historical actions become scientifically investigable. Historical truths in such a case cross over into the scientific arena. The book of Job suggests that we may have just such a situation at hand:
Then the LORD answered Job out of the whirlwind and said: "Who is this that darkens counsel by words without knowledge? Dress for action like a man; I will question you, and you make it known to me. Where were you when I laid the foundation of the earth? Tell me, if you have understanding." (Job 38:1-4)
In other words, paraphrased from feedback provided by my daughter Talitha, "we can use science to investigate and see that God did what just He said He did."
A third caution to Walton's position is that common positions taken by Old World (ancient near eastern) science, shared by Israelites and their neighbors, might still have been the product of earlier divine revelation. This must be considered, although how to do so is admittedly challenging.
To avoid an endless debate, I will take Walton's assertion as a strong caution rather that an absolute rule and try to use it to temper the AOJ model.
The Hadean Eon is informally defined as extending from the creation of the Earth until 4000 Ma.
The moon-forming impact is thought to have melted some regions of the earth and created a rock vapor atmosphere which condensed leaving behind hot volatile gases and a heavy CO2 atmosphere along with hydrogen and water vapor. A liquid water ocean existed with a surface temperature of 446 degrees Fahrenheit kept from boiling away by a crushing atmospheric pressure of 27 atmospheres.
In fact, it is possible to find many descriptions of the Hadean, but in general they all communicate an early Earth that is both lifeless and chaotic, at least at the beginning. So, does the Biblical statement that earth was "formless and void", or as I would translate it "uninhabitable and uninhabited", constitute the revelation of scientific truth?
Well, let's consider two simple thought experiments.
1) Did all known planets start out the same way, with a surface that is formless, void, dark, and a deep ocean with a surface? Uninhabitable/Formless: check; Uninhabited/Void: check; Dark: maybe, maybe not; Covered in an ocean: maybe, maybe not
2) Did ancient near eastern creation narrative authors have other options for describing the conditions of the primordial earth? They are largely working from the point of view of the "absence of what is" and working backwards to whatever seems irreducible. So scratch any sense of order, scratch light, scratch life, scratch land. Keep water as the fundamental element. But they could have assumed that since God is light, that in the beginning there was no darkness, everything was alive, and everything was perfectly ordered. God could have created darkness, things that were not alive, and chaotic forces. In a sense, if we back up to before the creation of the Universe, maybe that is true.
I form light and create darkness; I make well-being and create calamity; I am the LORD, who does all these things. Isaiah 45:7 ESV
AOJ: I see many ways to correlate the Biblical vocabulary formless/uninhabitable, void/uninhabited, dark, and watery with the early Earth during the Hadean Eon, whether regarding the Earth as a whole, or any given region upon the Earth. God may have inspired the author of Genesis to use a generic description of chaos or given them a prophetic vision of some area of Earth during this time. Not all planets have supported conditions that match those found on the early Earth, but some probably have. Genesis 1 seems to reveal insight into true and actual conditions that occurred early in the formation of Earth as a not-yet-habitable planet.
AOJ: Does the Biblical description of early earth being formless, void, dark, and watery constitute the revelation of scientific information into an ancient near eastern context? I am going to say, probably not. I think what was revealed was historical information. In the ANE, this historical information would have been assumed to apply to the ANE concept of the earth-cosmos system which was based on humanly observed phenomena. In today's world, we can apply this revealed historical information to our modern concept of the earth-cosmos system. Studying Earth's history, we can see that the setting of the opening salvo in Genesis 1 best correlates with the Hadean Eon and not to any other. We cannot work it the other way. We cannot start from Genesis 1 and derive a scientific model of early planetary formation any more than we can start from Genesis 1 and derive the Ancient Near Eastern concept of the earth-cosmos system. Genesis 1 validates neither the modern, nor the ancient cosmological models, but instead provides insight into the historical setting of God's historical actions, whichever conceptual model is in mind. I agree with Walton that God did not attempt to provide significant improvements to the ANE earth-cosmos concept, because it was not necessary. The ANE concepts were adequate to accommodate the revelation. It could be that if God had revealed the Genesis 1 history into a different culture's earth-cosmos model, He would have provided additional corrective revelation. Maybe God had already blessed the ANE with adequate revelation to enable the receipt of the Genesis 1:1-2:4 revelation.
AOJ: In an important way, Genesis 1 does provide a powerful corrective on other ANE cosmogonies. It destroys the concept of a pantheon of chaotic gods being responsible for different domains of creation and replaces that with the concept of one God who works consistently and providentially throughout all of creation. Genesis 1:1-2:4 is pre-scientific while at the same time providing the necessary foundation for science to proceed. Does it constitute "the revelation of scientific truth into an ancient culture" that the world is not operated by a pantheon of gods? I will leave that for you to decide.
AOJ: Why is the connection between science and the Bible so important? Scott Freeman notes on his blog, "It is an article of dogmatic belief for New Atheism that biblical faith cannot be based on evidence. At all. Ever. They feel that materialism/atheism owns the field of observable, verifiable evidence and that religious faith must ever remain wholly outside of that field. By definition. Always. Ironically, this in itself is a religious belief contradicting evidence." Atheists strongly prefer miraculous interpretations of biblical events and decry any connection these events have to historical or physical reality.
4000 Ma - The action of plate tectonics and the oceans trapped vast amounts of CO2, reducing the greenhouse effect and allowing the surface temperature to cool to near current levels.
4100-3800 Ma - The Late Heavy Bombardment of Earth and the Moon by asteroids occurs.
4500-4000 Ma - Fragile, high-erosion early continents seed the oceans with the nutrients needed for life.
The Spirit of God was hovering over the face of the waters. (Genesis 1:2b)
He watches over His nest like an eagle and hovers over His young; He spreads His wings, catches him, and lifts him up on His pinions. Deuteronomy 32:11 - Poetic description of the LORD's care for Israel.
AOJ: The Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life (Nicene Creed) gives life to the first living organism(s) in the ocean, hovering over and nurturing them.
3950 Ma - Early trace of life from 3.95 Ga sedimentary rocks in Labrador, Canada (September 2017)
UV radiation from the sun is lethal to living organisms. In the absence of atmospheric oxygen, and therefore also of UV-blocking ozone (O3), living organisms had to employ three powerful mechanisms to actively correct otherwise-lethal DNA damage. The 2015 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to describe these mechanisms. Prior to the emergence of these mechanisms and before ozone, surface life could only survive in the cloud-darkened environment created by high-sulphur UV-blocking clouds. (needs more references)
AOJ: The first life may have been nurtured by the Spirit of God while the Earth was still shrouded in clouds of thick darkness (Job 38). AOJ models the creation of the first living organism as the transition point between the formless and void earth (no longer completely void) and the following Days of Creation (forming and filling).
AOJ: Does the Bible reveal that God created the first microscopic life forms before or during the first Day of Creation? No, I would argue that it does not make this revelation. But, it does reveal that the Holy Spirit was hovering over the face of the deep. Scientists believe that the first life forms developed in the ocean or in tidal pools near the end of the Hadean. Scientists do not know exactly how and under what conditions that life arose. The Bible does reveal that the life-giving Spirit of God was present and not as a mere observer, but as an active agent, doing something. This means that, according to the Bible, scientists cannot claim that life got started without help. Scientific information on the origin of cellular life was not communicated to the ANE audience by Genesis 1. However, Genesis 1 does have implications for modern scientists interpreting and philosophizing about the origin of life event. Realizing this, we heed John Walton's warning against claiming that Genesis revealed science to the ANE culture, but we must still absorb the impact of revealed history on modern scientific philosophy.
AOJ habitability assessment: The AOJ Hadean Eon (the beginning) was a time when Earth was not only uninhabited by life, but also uninhabitable and even inhospitable. In fact, it seems downright hostile. If ice age human beings had been dropped onto Hadean earth, they would have quickly died in the choking, anoxic atmosphere, if not crushed first in high atmospheric pressure or boiled in searing temperatures. Space age humans would fair little better. A stout spacecraft could possibly allow a touch-and-go mission to such planet, but long term settlement would have been impossible. The environment was toxic and corrosive. The temperatures and pressures high. The rapidly rotating Earth created huge waves and fast winds. There was little exposed land surface and it was unstable at best. Frequent collisions from large asteroids resurfaced large portions of the planet from time to time. AOJ gives this period a habitability score of 0.
AOJ: DAY 1 - AOJ Archean Eon (3950-2250 Ma)
ICS: 4000-2500 Ma: Archean Eon formally defined dates
AOJ: AOJ uses the origin of life as the transition point between the formless and void Hadean and the life-bearing Archean; therefore the exact start date will change as scientific information on the timing of the first life improves. It is not expected that the scientific community will utilize this thinking to adjust the start date of the Archean.
And God said, "Let there be light," and there was light. And God saw that the light was good. Genesis 1:3,4a
3800-3500 Ma - Origin of Photosynthesis
The light reaching the surface of the Earth becomes good in several ways during the Archean Eon. These include having the right spectrum, intensity, and stability to drive photosynthesis in organisms whose metabolism then transformed the ocean waters of the Earth.
Photosynthetic organisms produced oxygen that transformed the oceans by binding to toxic metals causing them to precipitate out as ores, especially iron. Ultimately this led to an oxygenated ocean suitable for other life forms and to the first whiffs of oxygen building up in the atmosphere.
Build up of atmospheric oxygen led to the Great Oxidation/Oxygenation Event which plunged the Earth into a long-lasting global deep-freeze for hundreds of millions of years. This was the first major Snowball Earth event.
2660 Ma - Oxygen levels on early Earth rose, fell several times before great oxidation event (July 2018)
2700-2600 Ma - Great Oxygenation Event begins but oceans remain anoxic. (August 2010)
2501-2434 Ma - The Great Oxygenation Event preceded a Paleoproterozic "snowball Earth" (February 2020)
2460-2426 Ma - First Paleoproterozic global glaciation. (February 2017)
The postglacial transition of atmospheric oxygen levels may have promoted an ecological shift and biological innovations for oxygen-dependent life. Great Oxidation Event and Snowball Earth (February 2019)
2400 Ma - Oxygen begins accumulating in Earth's atmosphere after being held back by volcanic activity for hundreds of millions of years. (June 2020)
2300 Ma - Global glaciations and atmospheric change at ca. 2.3 Ga (September 2013) "GOE includes 2.5-2.3 Ga oceanic oxidation and 2.3-2.2 Ga atmospheric oxygenation. The nature of Earth's superficial system dramatically changed at ca. 2.3 Ga."
2300 Ma - Oxygen first appears in Earth's atmosphere. (February 2017)
2420-2250 Ma - A proposed Oxygenian Period would establish the first period of the Paleoproterozoic Era and of the Proterozoic Eon based on stratigraphy (glacial deposits and iron beds) instead of chronometry (radiometric dating).
AOJ: The events of the Oxygenian Period (whether by this name or any other) are generally considered the last phase of the Day 1 events which are triggered by photosynthesis operating under the provision of good light. AOJ uses the end of the proposed Oxygenian Period at 2250 Ma as the end of Day 1.
AOJ habitability assessment The AOJ Archean (day 1) was a time when Earth was habitable only to single-celled organism of the simplest kind. Eukaryotes probably did not exist. Cyanobacteria utilizing photosynthesis to produce oxygen from light was occurring and was the most profound process occurring that improved the habitability of the planet. There was still no oxygen in the atmosphere, so ice age humans could not survive. Space age humans in a sturdy craft might survive. Water and air temperature and pressures had stabilized near modern levels and the occurrence of large impacting astroids had greatly decreased compared to the Hadean. Volcanic activity also had lessened. There was still little exposed continental crust, and shorelines would have been pounded by immense waves. Some kind of submarine that could harvest oxygen from cyanobacteria and utilize them as a food source might allow space age explorers to survive for a while, but colonization would have been impossible. Fierce, unmitigated UV radiation bathed the entire planet. AOJ gives the Archean Earth a habitability score of 1.
DAY 2 - AOJ Proterozoic Eon (2250-575 Ma)
ICS: 2500-541 Ma: Proterozoic Eon formally defined dates
After the GOE event, photosynthetic organisms continued to produce oxygen that bubbled out of the water into the atmosphere. The exposed minerals of the rising continental crust that jutted out of the water was rusted by this oxygen, trapping the oxygen and preventing it from building up to modern levels for over a billion years.
800 Ma - Earth's O2 levels remain at 0.1% of modern levels, below the level needed for animals of any kind to survive. Low Mid-Proterozoic atmospheric oxygen levels and the delayed rise of animals
Once the surface of the Earth was fully oxidized, atmospheric oxygen could then build up again. This produced the second Snowball Earth scenario.
715-595 Ma - according to Snowball Earth hypothesis, Earth's surface became entirely or nearly entirely covered in frozen water. Earth was a frozen Snowball when animals first evolved
Not only did the atmospheric oxygen cool the planet, but it also allowed an ozone layer to form for the first time. Ozone blocks UV radiation which is damaging to cellular tissue. With the UV blocked, cells could do more than just try to repair radiation damage and reproduce - now they could differentiate and become the specialized tissues of the first animals.
And God said, “Let there be an expanse in the midst of the waters, and let it separate the waters from the waters.” (Genesis 1:6). The word translated expanse means canopy, firmament, or surface providing support. The description that this is an area of separation and also a place for birds to fly (v. 20) indicates that the author is communicating in a straightforward way about God creating a "space in which people can live" - a space above the water and below the sky.
AOJ: The Ozone Layer that formed on the 2nd Day of creation became the supporting shield that would enable the Earth to become habitable by all the creatures God was about to begin creating. It blocked UV radiation.
600 Ma - Life exploded on Earth after slow rise of oxygen "...why Earth has been habitable for so long is extremely important for understanding both the climate system, and why life is on Earth in the first place." and "Ultimately, a grasp of geologic controls on oxygen levels can help us understand whether animal-like life might exist or not on Earth-like planets elsewhere."
AOJ: The air we breathe, the sky we gaze up at, the clouds overhead - all these were created by God for human habitation. The Bible does not reveal scientific details about the kinds of changes God made to Earth's atmosphere. But the Bible appears to reveal that historically speaking there was a time when God made changes to the Earth's atmosphere such that His creatures would be able to live on the land. And that is what happens next, both in the Biblical narrative and the scientifically-discerned history of the Earth.
AOJ habitability assessment: The AOJ Proterozoic (day 2) was a time when the Earth continued to be uninhabitable by humans. Anaerobic bacteria largely went extinct or retreated to extreme environments following the end-of-day-1 Great Oxidation Event. Eukaryotic life could now live during this time. Eukaryotes are cells with a nucleus and mitochondria. This are the cell type of all plants and animals. However, during this time, the Earth was too hostile to support multi-cellular creatures which required genetic flexibility to allow cells to differentiate into different types. Because of the harsh environment, cells had to have the ability to aggressively correct mutations or they would die. This may have limited the possibility of utilizing mutations to adapt to the demands of multi-cellularity. Ice age humans would still quickly die on such a world, because oxygen levels were typically quite low, in the 1% range. Space age humans could tap into this low oxygen level and utilize it in an artificial habitat. The ocean waters were far less toxic than during the AOJ Archean (day 1) and the Earth's rotation rate was a bit slower so winds and coastal waves would be less severe. The Moon was farther away and tides would be lower, though still dramatic enough to limit coastal sites as bases for exploration. Iron deposits would have existed, laid down during the AOJ Archean (day 1), and other biologically-deposited ore reservoirs formed during this time. These available ores would increase habitability, but most would have been deep underwater at this time, making them difficult to extract. UV radiation levels were still lethal throughout most of this time. AOJ gives this period a habitability score of 2.
A Quick Re-cap
AOJ: The largest timespan in geochronology is the eon. Earth's history has been divided by scientists into 4 eons. As shown, the first three eons correspond roughly to periods where the earth was first formless and void, secondly was illuminated by good, photosynthesis-driving light, and thirdly experienced atmospheric transformation. This relates the first 3 eons respectively to the biblical beginning, first day, and second day. Informally, this is known as the Precambrian. The fourth eon, the Phanerozoic, is subdivided and examined for correlation with the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth days of creation.
DAY 3 - DAY 6 - AOJ Phanerozoic Eon (580-0 Ma)
580 Ma - At the beginning of Day 3, from space, the Earth would have resembled a snowball.
ICS: 541-0 Ma: Phanerozoic Eon formally defined dates
The Phanerozoic derives its name from the Greek words meaning visible life; since it was once believed that life began in the Cambrian, the first period of this eon. It was named in 1930. With the discovery of the soft-bodied Ediacarans that appear in what is called the Avalon explosion, the true beginning of visible (non-microscopic multicellular animals and plants) life is somewhat earlier. The Avalon Explosion is dated to about 575 Ma and follows the Gaskiers Glaciation which is dated to 580 Ma and may be the trigger event creating the conditions of habitability needed for these animals to live.
AOJ: I suggest that the dates for the Phanerozoic be adjusted to reflect the significant findings regarding the Ediacarans and should therefore begin at either 579 Ma or 575 Ma; I have no reason to expect that the ICS will actually make this change however.
DAY 3 - Paleozoic and Mesozoic[Early Cretaceous] Eras (580-100 Ma)
580 Ma - A volcanic binge and its frosty hangover. A major volcanic event 619 Ma could have triggered one of the largest glaciations in Earth's history -- the Gaskiers glaciation, which turned the Earth into a giant snowball approximately 580 million years ago. Volcanism is a natural process that releases the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere. Weathering of silicate rocks on Earth's surface traps atmospheric CO2 and sequesters it in carbonate rocks. "That guarantees long-term stability of Earth's temperate surface conditions in comparison to the hostile environment of its cosmic neighbours, hot Venus and cold Mars".
AOJ: Earth is fine-tuned for habitability by God's creative work throughout geologic history.
575 Ma - Origin of first complex multicellular organisms.
That almost 4 Billion years elapsed since the origin of the Earth before the first complex multicellular organisms appear testifies that intelligent life may be exceptionally rare in the Universe or even unique to Earth. The Timing of Evolutionary Transitions Suggests Intelligent Life Is Rare
Gen. 1:9. "Let the waters under heavens be gathered into one place, and let the dry land appear."
Gen. 1:10 "...the waters that were gathered together he called seas."
Eccl. 1:7 "All streams run into the sea, but the sea is not full; to the place where the streams flow, there they flow again."
AOJ: In the warming that followed the End-Proterozoic Snowball Earth, the dry land appears as the glaciers melted and the melt-water ran into the sea. It was along these river channels that plants first cultivated land.
470 Ma - O-S extinction event - 85% of marine species go extinct
420 Ma - Origin of Bony Fish
419-359 Ma - The First "Age of Fish"; creation of kinds of fish, the vast majority of which go extinct
360 Ma - Late Devonian extinction event - between 79% and 87% of all biodiversity is lost - potentially triggered by plant evolution
Plants put a choke hold on the age of fish. The Devonian extinction saw the oceans choke to death
AOJ: While Bony (and therefore easy to fossilize) Fish were created before plants bearing seeds, I don't see this as a conflict with the Biblical narrative because of these early bony fish species went extinct. Furthermore, they don't characterize the kinds of fish alive at the time of the Israelites. In other words, the first Bony Fish are not the kinds of fish over which God gave Adam and mankind dominion. They aren't the fish of Genesis 1.
Toward the end of the Devonian period, vascular land plants develop. The size of the tallest plants goes up from 3 cm to 30 m. Thriving, large land plants broke up soil, releasing nutrients into the oceans which trigger algae blooms. In some areas of the world's oceans, algae was broken down by bacteria which consumed all the oxygen in the water. In other places, different species of algae-eating bacteria released toxic sulphur chemicals into the water. Large areas of anoxic water and hydrogen sulphide pollution led to massive extinction of marine life. Above the ocean surface, plants removed CO2 from the atmosphere triggering global cooling.
310 Ma - Teleost fish are created but do not dominate marine ecosystems until post-K/Pg
AOJ: Teleost fish are created before the first seed plants. Again, this is not a contradiction to the Biblical narrative because God had not yet commanded them to "fill the water in the seas", and they may not have been engaged in the swarming behavior commanded in Genesis 1. At this point in history, teleost fish where still minor players in the world's oceans.
350-320 Ma - First Seed Plants (Gymnosperm)
300 Ma - pinophytes (pine trees), cycads, ginkgo (Modern orders of gymnosperms)
260 Ma - Capitanian mass extinction event - loss of about 1/3 of marine invertabrates
252 Ma - P-Tr extinction - benefits to conifers including pine trees; 96% of marine species go extinct
245 Ma - origin of seed-plant ancestor of angiosperms
201 Ma - Tr-J extinction - per Wikipedia, plants were left fairly untouched, along with dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and earlier mammals; while up to a third of marine genera went extinct along with all conodonts in the seas and archosauromorphs on land.
AOJ: While we see the origin of fish predate plants, the combined extinctions of the LD, Cap, P-Tr and Tr-J eliminate 79%, 33%, 96% and 34% of all marine species while benefiting seed plants and flowering plants. Therefore, the early fish and marine species that went extinct are not the ones referred to in Genesis 1 as being the species over which man would rule (Genesis 1:28). It is the plants that originate at this time that continue to the present day.
165-150 Ma - now-extinct species of archaic birds created
"Early birds diversified throughout the Jurassic and Cretaceous, becoming capable fliers with supercharged growth rates, but were decimated at the end-Cretaceous extinction alongside their close dinosaurian relatives. After the mass extinction, modern birds (members of the avian crown group) explosively diversified, culminating in more than 10,000 species distributed worldwide today."
"True modern birds -- members of the crown group Neornithes -- are a mostly post-Cretaceous radiation, although there is some fossil evidence for Cretaceous species. This evidence mostly consists of extremely fragmentary specimens of tenuous taxonomic affinity. The single best record of Cretaceous neornithine is the partial skeleton of Vegavis from the latest Cretaceous (around 68-66 Ma)."
Genesis 1:28 And God said to [man] have dominion over the... birds of the heavens..."
AOJ: More than decimated, most or all original species of birds died out during the K-Pg extinction event. Therefore, it is the birds that God created on Day 5 that are referred to in Genesis 1 and over whom mankind was given charge, and not the early birds that He apparently created on Day 3 and which then went extinct.
125 Ma - true flowering plants by at least this time; probably much earlier
113 Ma - Woody or not woody? Evidence for early angiosperm habit from the Early Cretaceous fossil wood record of Europe (June 2008) "woody characteristics in angiosperms appeared during the Albian (113-110 Ma) ... global extension and dominance of angiosperms in the Cenomanian (100-94 Ma) is concomitant with a sharp increase in heteroxylous wood diversity."
100 Ma - Modern Orders of Extant Fruit Trees Radiation (that is, orders of fruit trees that still exist in the world today begin to diversify and proliferate)
AOJ: The origin of fruit trees (woody angiosperms) is one of the three anchor events (along with origin of DNA-based life and the origin of modern humans) that tie the scientific history of the Earth to the biblical creation narrative in Genesis 1:1-2:4. Therefore the Day 3 creative work is considered done when woody angiosperms show up in the fossil record and is nominally specified as 100 Ma.
AOJ habitability assessment: The AOJ Paleo-Mesozoic (day 3) was a time when the Earth could finally host plant and animal life. The Earth's climate varied widely throughout this time. Volcanic activity was high. During the early portion, oxygen levels were high and continent-sized wild fires were common. Ice age and space age humans would have had great difficulty surviving during this time. While they could survive without space suits and air tanks, they might still need respirators at times to clean the air. Once seed plants arose, it would be easier for them to gather food. But predators were fierce and prey was formidable. It's not clear who would survive longer, ice age or space age humans. It would be difficult to maintain a high technology culture in this environment. Dinosaurs came to so dominate the environment that early mammals were all mouse-sized or smaller. Several major extinction events occurred during this time. Given that human species such as Denisovans and Neanderthal went extinct under much more benign conditions, it is unlikely that humans would survive long during this time. AOJ gives this period a habitability score of 3.
DAY 4 - Mesozoic[Late Cretaceous] (100-66 Ma)
"...let them [the lights] be for signs and for seasons and for days and years"
66 Ma - Sun governs 24-hour circadian rhythm (+/- 15 minutes); approximately 365 (~369) days per year; ~12 lunar months/year
AOJ: The focus of Day 4 is the change in the movement of the lights in the sky
66 Ma - K-Pg Extinction of Dinosaurs and other creatures
AOJ: The K-Pg Extinction cleared the way for the emergence and dominance of the kinds of birds, fish, and animals over which man would come to rule (Gen. 1:28) and was accompanied by the flourishing of fruit trees and seed plants.
AOJ habitability assessment: The Late Cretaceous (Day 4) was a time when Earth could host plant and animal life of great diversity. Dinosaurs still reigned supreme, surpassing mammals. This is a strong indication that humans would not survive well during this time. While vast coal deposits formed during the early part of day 3, most of the highly available coal formed only during the later part of day 3 and even later. This resource could have been valuable to humans, especially technologically advanced ones. Even more significantly, at the very end of Day 3, fruit bearing trees emerged. Throughout this time, they diversified greatly, providing a high-energy food source. An important element to human thriving is the circadian 24-hour rhythm. Humans are adapted to this rhythm and during this time, the Earth's rotation rate finally slowed down to within the tolerance of human circadian rhythms. The Earth also became more seasonal, creating more habitats to exploit. Many factors make the Late Cretaceous the first time in Earth's history when ice age or space age humans might have been able to survive on a long-term basis. But dinosaurs still presented a formidable foe and competitor, and the K-Pg extinction event would likely have destroyed all humans as well. AOJ gives this period a habitability score of 4.
DAY 5 - Cenozoic[Paleocene & Eocene] (66-34 Ma)
"Let the waters swarm with swarms of living creatures and let birds fly above the earth across the expanse of the heavens"
66-34 Ma - Majority of Modern Orders of Extant Birds Radiation (diversify and proliferate)
"True modern birds -- members of the crown group Neornithes -- are a mostly post-Cretaceous radiation, although there is some fossil evidence for Cretaceous species. This evidence mostly consists of extremely fragmentary specimens of tenuous taxonomic affinity. The single best record of Cretaceous neornithine is the partial skeleton of Vegavis from the latest Cretaceous (around 68-66 Ma)."
56-34 Ma - Modern Orders of Bats develop (Biblically grouped with birds)
56-34 Ma - Modern Orders of Extant Toothed Whales develop (includes killer whales and dolphins, the Leviathan that sport in ships' wakes; compare Psalm 104:26; great monsters of Genesis 1:21, maybe)
AOJ: Over the course of the Paleocene and Eocene, modern birds evolve, ray finned fishes come to dominate the marine ecosystem, bats evolve, and both toothed and baleen whales evolve.
42 Ma - root of the carnivora order emerges; but E-O extinction will eliminate many branches
34 Ma - E-O Extinction event - most significant restructuring of mammals and land animals since the K-Pg
AOJ habitability assessment: The AOJ Early Cenozoic (day 5) provided a step-change in habitability for humans. With the dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and marine reptiles gone, modern kinds of birds and fish thrived. Mammals also thrived which is a good indication that ice age humans could have thrived as well. Birds and small mammals would have made good prey. Large mammals could have been hunted as well. The predators were fierce, but only on a scale comparable to ice age mega fauna. Still, challenges abounded. The climate overall was hotter and at the end of the Eocene almost all early primates went extinct along with many mammals. Humans might have succumbed as well. Also challenging, there were no C4 photosynthesizing plants, meaning plants were less productive as food sources. Tall grasses and grains were still uncommon. The domesticated animals that humans leverage for survival, like horses, cattle, sheep, and wolves (dogs) did not yet exist. Any ice age humans living during this time would likely have remained at a very primitive state, if they even survived many generations. Human lineages seem to have a penchant for extinction. Still, overall conditions were much more favorable than during the AOJ Late Cretaceous (day 4). If humans were to find another planet like this, they would likely find a way to thrive. AOJ gives this period a habitability score of 5.
DAY 6 - Cenozoic[Oligocene & Neogene & Pleistocene] (34-0 Ma)
And God said, "Let the earth bring forth living creatures according to their kinds - livestock and creeping things and beasts of the earth according to their kinds." Genesis 1:24 ESV
23 Ma - bovine (cattle, sheep, goats, etc.)
300-50 Ka - human beings bearing the Image of God created (depending on various concepts)
150-10 Ka - Adam and Eve created (depending on various concepts)
AOJ: domesticated farm animals clearly have their roots in species that evolved after the E-O boundary, as do human beings. What is debatable is "creeping things and beasts". The E-O extinction affected many land animals and sheared off many side-branches that emerged earlier. Furthermore, recent detailed climatic studies neatly divide the Cenozoic into two periods: Hothouse-Warmhouse from 66-34 Ma followed by Coolhouse-Coldhouse from 34 Ma until present. The global climate change affected which animals would thrive and thus which animals would exist for man to rule over. Therefore, I also divide the Cenozoic along these climatic lines into Day 5 and Day 6.
AOJ habitability assessment: The AOJ Late Cenozoic (day 6) is clearly the time when humans were able to thrive. Even a variety of archaic hominid species survived for millions of years before going extinct. A huge change occurred early during the AOJ Late Cenozoic and that is the emergence of a wide variety of plants adopting C4 photosynthesis which allowed them to be much more productive as food sources. The overall global climate was cooler which seems to have benefited human beings in particular. As evidence, modern humans first began to thrive globally during the most recent ice age. Temperate climates along the equator probably were very beneficial, along with lower sea levels that allowed for global expansion. Many animals species arose that humans expertly learned to exploit. AOJ gives this period a habitability score of 6.
"Thus the heavens and the earth were finished, and all the host of them. And on the seventh day God finished his work that he had done, and he rested on the seventh day from all his work that he had done. So God blessed the seventh day and made it holy, because on it God rested from all his work that he had done in creation." Genesis 2:1-3 ESV
AOJ habitability assessment: The AOJ Anthropozoic (day 7) is the time when the Earth was ready not just for humans to survive but also to thrive. God's preparations were complete. Following the recent ice age's last global maximum, Earth's global climate began to warm (although unevenly at first) and eventually stabilized significantly during the Holocene. This allowed for global agriculture to thrive and the Earth to support a burgeoning human population engaged in highly productive and specialized occupations. Ice age humans survived to produce space age descendants. AOJ gives this period a habitability score of 7.
AOJ: By looking at the history of planet Earth with a scientific lens, we can see that Earth passed through several distinct step changes in habitability when considering the needs of human beings. The Bible reveals that God prepared the earth including its sky, its oceans, and its land so that human beings could thrive on this planet. The Bible reveals that God created plants and animals as necessary resources for human thriving. Although the Bible does not reveal the scientific technical details of habitability, it does lay out the story as one of stages of preparation. We do well to use the Bible as a guide to thinking about the history of planet Earth. Given that the geologic timespans used by scientists are conveniences for the study and stewardship of the Earth, we would also do well to think of the alignment between Genesis 1:1-2:4 and these time spans. It is an advantage to Christians to discuss the historical concordance between the habitability of the Earth as revealed by modern science-based stewardship of this planet and the revealed message of God's preparing this planet for that stewardship. For this reason, I present the Days of Creation with habitability-informed tweaks to the official geologic timespans. Seeing science and the Bible in harmony in this way allows for a well-established Christian worldview and a faith-grounded, science-informed pursuit of the God-given, human-shouldered role of planetary stewardship. May we glorify God and keep our habitability score at 7.
AOJ: Did God reveal scientific information to people living thousands of years ago? Well, certainly not using modern scientific jargon. I do think He revealed truth about the history of His work in preparing the heavens and the earth as a habitat for humanity and as a temple for His worship. That we can now examine that history scientifically simply means that the burden of knowledge is all the more laid at our feet.
And the Lord said, "Who then is the faithful and wise manager, whom his master will set over his household, to give them their portion of food at the proper time? Blessed is the servant whom his master will find doing so when he comes....
But the one who did not know, and did what deserved a beating, will receive a light beating. Everyone to whom much was given, of him much will be required, and from him to whom they entrusted much, they will demand the more." Luke 12:42-43,48 ESV
AOJ: I read Genesis 2:4 as a summary of the creation account detailed in the first chapter of the book of Genesis, seeing it a colophon taken from an original source tablet. As such, it tells us that Genesis 1 is an ancient, historical account of God's work as revealed by God Himself and we should treat it as such, not being surprised that the study of Earth's history fills in additional details.
AOJ Summary Chart
This is the account of the heavens and the earth when they were created, in the day that the LORD God made earth and heavens. Genesis 2:4 NASB
According to the Reasons to Believe creation model what are the scientific dates for start and end times for each of the six days of creation in Genesis 1?
By carefully studying the chart below you may observe both similarities and vast differences between the AOJ model described above and the Reasons to Believe model below. It's up to you to decide if you think one of these is more helpful than the other.
This is not meant as a competitive criticism of RTB. RTB is a fantastic apologetic ministry and provides some of the best available information on God's work throughout the history of the Earth. Many of their books are very valuable resources.
I will point out some distinctions to help you compare these models.
Distinction in focus:
- The RTB model tends to focus on when each day may have started.
- The AOJ model tends to focus on when each day may have ended.
Distinction in how the two models deal with the firmament of Day 2:
- RTB focuses on the separation of the waters above from the waters below and interpret this to mean the establishment of a stable water cycle.
- AOJ focuses on the creation of the firmament as a protective canopy that allows complex plant life to take root on land.
Distinction in identification of plants created on Day 3:
- RTB starts Day 3 with the formation of the first continental land masses that hosted any kind of chlorophyll-bearing organisms but ends before seed plants and fruit trees exist.
- AOJ ends Day 3 with the creation of fruit trees and includes the origin of the first seed plants.
Distinction in the function of the lights referred to on Day 4:
- Both RTB and AOJ models assert the creation of the Sun and Moon prior to Day 1.
- Both RTB and AOJ models assert that the surface of the Earth was darkened at the beginning of Day 1 because of light-blocking clouds.
- Both RTB and AOJ models accept that the Sun, Moon, and stars became occasionally visible through a sometimes transparent atmosphere prior to 580 Ma.
- Both RTB and AOJ would accept that the Earth's rotation rate had slowed to the point that ~24 hour days and ~365 day years occurred by about 66 Ma.
- The RTB model focuses on the lights appearing in the heavens; RTB ends Day 4 prior to 575 Ma.
- The AOJ model asserts that the lights appearing in the heavens is a literary flashback to conditions that occurred on Day 2 which it asserts ended prior to 575 Ma.
- The AOJ model focuses on the lights marking signs, seasons, (24-hour) days and (365 day) years; AOJ ends Day 4 by 66 Ma.
Distinction in how global extinction events are considered:
- The RTB model does not seem to address global extinction events
- The AOJ model weighs extinction events heavily; it looks at the habitability of Earth over time; it considers the origin of extant kinds of plants, birds, fish, and animals rather than the origin of the long-extinct first type of any of these.
These distinctions, and others, drive significant changes in how the geologic record and biblical texts are interpreted and aligned.
RTB Summary Chart
Side-By-Side AOJ and RTB Creation Chart
No comments:
Post a Comment