What if Genesis 1 is a revelation from God about the work He did in creating the Heavens and the Earth?
Does that sound like a unnecessary question? Many might think, "Well, of course it is just that." It starts out with "In the beginning..." and ends up with "Thus the heavens and the earth were finished, and all the host of them." And yet, there is a trend among Biblical scholars to treat Genesis 1 as if it were a mere literary device to convey God's purpose, but not His specific actions. Some scholars wish to distance Genesis 1 from the actual history of planet Earth. They warn us not to read science into the Bible. There is good advice to be had from these professional Bible scholars.
But still, the question nags. It gnaws at the back of the mind. What if Genesis 1 is real history? That's not the same as asking whether Genesis 1 is true. Of course it is true. It is true in many ways, and false in none. But does it convey true history, or just true concepts?
To answer this question in full is a project of tremendous scope, beyond a mere blog post. What I will do here is to sniff around the edges and see what I can find. Is there an enticing aroma that lures us to dig deeper, or do we unearth a stench that warns us to retreat?
For this investigation to merit our time, it must be set up correctly. I am going to apply insight from the ancient Near Eastern culture which first received the Genesis text, carefully study the original Hebrew language, and look at recent and relevant scientific discoveries. To scope the project into a manageable size, I will look specifically at the passages teaching about the plants and animals referred to in the texts for the third day (v. 9-13), the fifth day (v. 20-23), and the sixth day (v. 24-31).
Bringing the Ancient Near Eastern Culture Near
John H. Walton, in his Lost World series, delves deep into the literature of the Ancient Near East to bring us an understanding of the cultural milieu in which Genesis 1 was first received. He notes that while, by God's providence, the book of Genesis was written for us, it was not written to us.
Walton warns that we moderns wish to interpret Genesis 1 as a tale of material origins. "Since in our culture we believe that existence is material, we consequently believe that to create something means to bring its material properties into existence. Thus our discussions of origins tend to focus on material origins." p.23, The Lost World of Genesis One, John H. Walton
But, Walton goes on to argue that "some sorts of origins are more important than other sorts of origins." p. 34
"I have suggested that in the ancient world they defined [existence] differently. They thought of existence as defined by having a function in an ordered system." p. 34
"...analysts of the ancient Near Eastern creation literature often observe that nothing material is actually made in these accounts.... instead, everything is function oriented." p.33
"Consequently, to create something (cause it to exist) in the ancient world means to give it function, not material properties." p. 33
Walton argues that the Hebrew word bara which is translated create means to assign something its function. That is to say, a chair is not meaningfully a chair unless someone sits on it. If it is only propped against a door to bar entry, then it is more of a lock than a chair. The functional nature of Genesis 1 is readily apparent. Each day begins with "Let..." which signifies the ordination of a function as in "Let the earth bring forth...".
Walton also raises the question, "In the beginning of what?" Here we can look to the creation proverb, Proverb 8: "then I [wisdom] was beside him, like a master workman, and I was daily his delight, rejoicing before him always, rejoicing in his inhabited world and delighting in the children of man." v30-31
I take this to mean that the end goal of the Genesis 1 narrative is an "inhabited world" in which mankind can thrive and worship God. The inhabited world is the particular ordered system for the purposes for which functions are assigned.
So we can consider the phrase "In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth. The earth was without form and void" and understand it in the correct light.
Informed by ancient Near Eastern culture and other Bible passages we can interpret it as follows:
In the beginning of God's preparing the heavens and the earth, the earth was uninhabitable and uninhabited. So God assigned functions throughout the heavens and the earth to make a habitat for mankind and then He placed Mankind into that habitat to thrive.
The manufacture of material is part of the narrative, but secondary to the functional assignments. The purpose of a thing is more important than the properties of a thing. Yes, it is interesting that something came to be, but it is more relevant to know what it is supposed to do and to see it doing. This is the ancient Near Eastern mindset.
With this as our background, we will look specifically at the plants, fish, birds and animals of Genesis 1.
Reading Genesis 1
DAY 3
In order to stick to my limited scope, I will just look at the second part of the Day 3 account.
And God said, "Let the earth (erets) sprout (dasha) vegetation (deshe), plants (eseb) yielding (zara) seed (zera), and fruit (periy) trees (ets) bearing (asah) fruit (periy) in which (asher) is their seed (zera), each according to it kind (miyn), on (al) the earth (erets)." And it was (haya) so (ken). v. 11
The earth brought forth (yatsa) vegetation, plants yielding seed according to their own kinds, and trees bearing fruit in which is their seed, each according to its kind. And God saw that it was good. v. 12
And there was evening and morning, the third day. v. 13
The most literal translation, would be something like this:
God said: "Sprout, oh land, soft plants, herbs sowing seeds, and productive trees making produce of kind with seed, upon the land." Thus it happened.
Young's Literal Translation renders it like this:
And God saith, 'Let the earth yield tender grass, herb growing seed, fruit-tree (whose seed [is] in itself) making fruit after its kind, on the earth:' and it is so.
The Functions of the Plants on Day 3
Skipping to the plants, we see that God's command is not about bringing something materially into being, but about telling something to function in the way it is intended to function. Seeing this motivates the functional over material interpretation of Genesis 1.
Kinds of Plants
One question that arises is whether there are two kinds, or three kinds, of plant life mentioned. Is vegetation (deshe) a category with two types: herbs and fruit trees? Or, is it a type unto itself?
The word deshe is often associated with young plants, tender plants, and new grass in other Bible passages. Plants during this phase of development are low in the chemical lignin that gives plants their stiffness. Deshe could refer to all plants low in lignin and indicate a third category. The word also is associated with the first plants that emerge or that which is green emerging from the earth.
Looking at the blessing given later in v.29-30 provides some points of comparison:
And God said, “Behold, I have given you every plant (eseb) yielding seed that is on the face of all the earth, and every tree (ets) with seed in its fruit. You shall have them for food. 30 And to every beast of the earth and to every bird of the heavens and to everything that creeps on the earth, everything that has the breath of life, I have given every green plant for food.” v29-30a
In the blessing, we see two kinds from Day 3 are given, with no mention of deshe plants.
deshe - plants that can be described as deshe include any soft, green plant including everything from bryophytes to very young sprouts of a variety of species.
eseb - seed plants include two major types: gymnosperms (like evergreens) and angiosperms (like flowers)
ets - fruit trees are woody angiosperms, flowering plants that have woody stalks and grow into trees; the flowers grow into the fruit and the fruit contains the seeds of plant; some gymnosperms also produce fruit-like structures that even carnivores enjoy as a food source
Summary of Day 3
The above analysis suggests that the text for Day 3 intends to paint the following picture for the reader:
- The barren earth becomes green as the first tender plants (perhaps bryophytes that lack seeds and flowers) sprout from the soil.
- Then plants producing seeds, which we identify as gymnosperms and angiosperms, begin to grow and scatter their seeds about.
- Finally, fruit trees, which we identify as woody angiosperms, begin to grow and produce fruit. It is also possible to think of those gymnosperms which produce fruit-like structures.
- The function of the plants is to bless mankind, and the animals and birds identified in v.29-30
DAY 5
And said God, "Let bring forth abundantly (sharats) the waters (mayim) the moving (sherets) creature (nephesh) that has life (chay) and birds (oph) [that] may fly (uph) above the earth in the open firmament of the heavens." 1:20 [an interlinear Hebrew-English translation is used here to help identify the Hebrew words that are translated into English]
Again in ESV:
And God said, "Let the waters swarm with swarms of living creatures, and let birds fly above the earth across the expanse of the heavens." v. 20
[So] God created the great (gadol) sea creatures (tannim) and every (kol) living (chay) creature (nephesh) that moves (ramas), with which to the waters swarm (sharats), according to their kinds, and every winged bird according to its kind. 1:21
And God blessed them, saying, "Be fruitful and multiply and fill the waters in the seas (yam), and let birds multiply on the earth." 1:21
And there was evening and there was morning, the fifth day. 1:23
...And let them have dominion (radah) over the fish (dagah) of the sea (yam) and over the birds (oph) of the heavens... 1:26
From the Day 6 text (in v26), we see that God gives mankind dominion over the creatures that he has assigned to the waters and the heavens. The parallelism between the three decrees of God (ordain, bless, dominion) helps us to understand the nature of the creatures that are brought forth.
The Functions of Day 5
Thinking about functions within an ordered system helps us to see the point of the day 5 narrative. The fish have a function - to swarm. The birds have a function - to fly. The fish and the birds have a function - to fill the waters and the earth. The waters and the earth support these functions by providing habitats. In wisdom, God's blessing ensures that the habitat allows these creatures to fulfill their function. The function of these creatures and these habitats must serve a greater function within the overall goal of providing a habitat in which humanity can thrive.
So God assigned functions to the great sea creatures and to the other creatures.
If we think about create meaning assigned functions, then it changes our expectations from the narrative. In terms of historical occurrences, it completely changes the focus. Now, instead of thinking of Day 5 as when the specified fish and birds came into being materially, we should think of the specified fish and birds coming into their dominions and thriving on Day 5. They begin to fulfill their intended function on Day 5.
We can ask the interesting scientific question, What is the oldest fossil ever found that in meaningful ways resembles a bird? But the answer to that question has no bearing on the text of Genesis 1!
We need to ask a different question, When did the flying birds over which mankind would have dominion become fruitful and begin to multiply on the earth? The Bible answers that: Day 5.
Studying the history of the Earth using the tools of science might also provide an answer. But this answers a totally different question than asking about the oldest bird fossil. It's very much like the difference between asking When were the first concepts that would inspire the Constitution of the United States written down?(material origins) and When did the Constitution become the law of the land? (functional origin) Since we are trying to understand history, it really matters that we get the right answers matched up to the right questions.
To ask the right questions though, we need to know what is meant by fish and birds.
Concerning Fish
Studying the Hebrew words, we see that God ordains that the seas and mighty rivers (yam) and oceans in general (mayim) of the earth provide an environment in which nephesh, chay, sherets begin to sharats and to thrive abundantly.
What do all these Hebrew words mean?
nephesh indicates a living soul with mind, will, and emotions.
chay means living, alive, lively or active creature.
sherets means swarming or teeming animals including insects (but in this context water animals).
sharats means to swarm - it is what swarming animals (sherets) do.
gadol means great in either size or number
tannim, tannin means dragon, in a general sense, but is used in a range of contexts including land snakes, sea monsters, and formidable monsters.
dagah is the generic term for fish
mayim means waters; as a parallel to yam likely indicates open waters of the oceans or great seas
yam is used to refer to seas such as the Mediterranean or great rivers like the Nile
In 1:26 mankind is given dominion over the fish that the waters bring forth. Putting this together, we can see that the waters bring forth fish which behave in ways reflective of mind and emotion and which swarm together in the oceans and great seas and great rivers.
Using these specifics, we can identify the creatures indicated. In animal species, it is the neocortex portion of the brain that is attributed with soulish (nephesh) behavior reflective of mind, will, and emotions. Among land animals, it is the mammals that have a neocortex and which primarily exhibit intelligent and emotional behaviors. Some fish have a homologous region in their brains, giving them similar characteristics.
Among fish, it is specifically teleost fish, which are a type of ray-finned, bony fish that most exhibit nephesh characteristics and schooling (swarming, sharats) behavior. 96% of the 30,000 extant species of fish are teleosts. Therefore, it is reasonable to conclude that 1:20 specifically indicates God's command for great schools of teleost fish to be brought forth abundantly and to multiply in the oceans and waters of the world for the eventual benefit of mankind.
Concerning what God created
The description of what God created is expanded relative to what He ordained that the waters bring forth, namely it includes the "great dragons". This is not to be taken as a mythical element in the narrative. Quite to the contrary, this statement explicitly teaches that the feared tannim of Ancient Near Eastern cultures were not demons, gods, or mystical creatures. Rather, they were simply animals created by God. In fact, this tells us more about what these creatures are not, than what they are.
However, the creation Psalm 104 contains this useful reflection:
Here is the sea, great and wide, which teems with creatures innumerable, living things both small and great. There go the ships, and Leviathan (livyathan), which you formed to play in it. Psalm 104:25-26
The Hebrew livyathan has a broad meaning and can essentially function as a synonym for tannim. Again, we are told that these creatures are not mystical beasts, but creatures made by God. Helpfully, this Psalm identifies them as sea creatures that sport in ships' wakes and which are seen playing from ships' bows. Therefore, we can see that these are creatures like dolphins and killer whales that play in wakes and larger whales that breach. Like all mammals, these creatures have a neocortex and exhibit highly intelligent and emotional behaviors befitting the soulish (nephesh) descriptor. Like schooling fish, these social animals form pods and family groups and "swarm" or "teem" together.
A second word appears in the statement of what was created: every (kol) living (chay) soulish creature (nephesh). The Hebrew kol can mean all, any, or every and different translators make different choices. For example, the Contemporary English Version uses "all the living creatures" and the English Standard Version uses "every living creature". What is crucial to note is that this word does not modify the meaning of what is meant by chay nephesh. When we read the word "every" in an English translation, that does not suddenly permit the meaning of the words nephesh chay sharats to include neurologically simple oysters and starfish or sessile sea anemone or solitary octopi and sharks. What we can infer is that God was involved with the origin of each of the kinds that are indicated by the text.
Taken together, in addition to teleost fish, we see that Day 5 includes the creation of dolphins and whales. By careful analysis, we can see that this excludes other sea creatures such as clams, sponges, jellyfish, octopi, and sharks which may exhibit some, but not all, of the identifying characteristics. We can certainly assert that God created all these other kinds as well (Colossians 1:16), but we cannot look to Genesis 1 to see when or on which day He did so.
What we learn from food laws about fish
In Genesis 9:2-4 we find: "...all the fish of the sea. Into your hand they are delivered. Every moving thing that lives shall be food for you..."
In Leviticus 11:9 "These you may eat, of all that are in the waters. Everything in the waters that has fins and scales, whether in the seas or in the rivers, you may eat. But anything in the seas or in the rivers that does not have fins and scales, of the swarming creatures (sherets) in the waters and of the living (chay) creatures (nephesh) that are in the waters, is detestable to you."
Fish (chay nephesh sherets from Genesis 1) have fins and scales and are distinct from animals that are described as either swarming creatures (sherets only) or living creatures (chay nephesh only). For example, jellyfish swarm but are not soulish and sharks and octopi are lively and intelligent, but tend to be solitary.
The point we want to take in is that when the Hebrew words get translated from words that convey specific traits such as lively, soulish, and swarming into English words such as living, creature, and moving, the meaning becomes broadened in a way that is not readily apparent. When the English reader then interprets the translated words, he is tempted to again expand the meaning and overly generalize. He may come to the conclusion that everything that lives in water was materially brought into existence all at once on the fifth day not realizing that the Hebrew text is far from supporting such a claim.
References:
The Lamprey Pallium Provides a Blueprint of the Mammalian Layered Cortex. (October 2017) "In ray-finned fish, there is evidence based on a combination of histochemical and genetic markers for the presence of a pallial region homologous to neocortex"
The Pallium and Mind/Behavior Relationships in Teleost Fishes (August 2013) "The dorsal media area (Dmd) has sensory 'neocortex-like' features"
Concerning Birds
The Hebrew words in this case are fairly clear.
oph means flying thing and could refer to birds, insects, and bats
uph mans to fly, which rules out flightless birds and swarming (sharats) insects (sherets)
Because these creatures also fly across the heavens, instead of swarming, the correct understanding is flying birds, with possible inclusion of bats.
Birds are also soulish (nephesh), although the term is not specifically applied here. Specifying that these creatures fly instead of swarm already identifies them adequately as birds and distinguishes them from swarming insects. Some insects can fly but do not form swarms. However, it would seem odd to choose insects over birds for the creatures being described as flying across the expanse of heaven.
What we learn from food laws about birds
In Genesis 9:2-4 we find: "...every bird of the heavens,... Into your hand they are delivered. Every moving thing that lives shall be food for you.... But you shall not eat flesh with its life, that is its blood."
In Leviticus 11:13 "And these you shall detest among the birds (oph); they shall not be eaten; they are detestable: the eagle, ...vulture(s), the kite, ...falcon(s), raven(s), the ostrich, the nighthawk, the sea gull, hawks(s), owl(s), the cormorant, the stork, heron(s), the hoopoe, and the bat."
All identified creatures (oph) are birds, except for the bat. We must consider bats among the oph created on Day 5. We can exclude insects because they do not have blood and flightless birds like the ostrich and penguin because the Day 5 text explicitly refers to birds that fly.
References:
Bird Brains Are Far More Humanlike Than Once Thought (September 2020)
Summary of Day 5
When considering the Hebrew text carefully, we can observe that Genesis 1 is specific rather than general in describing what kinds of animals were assigned functions on Day 5. While this analysis seems difficult and technical, that is because Hebrew is not our native language. What we conclude here with effort would have been obvious to the original audience when delivered in their heart language and in their culture.
The above analysis suggests that the text for Day 5 intends to paint the following picture for the reader:
- schooling and shoaling teleost fish are to proliferate rapidly, filling and dominating ecological niches in many kinds of waterways
- the function of filling and multiplying implies a vacated space to occupy
- large marine mammals including whales and dolphins are to proliferate
- flying birds and bats are to proliferate rapidly, filling the earth
- the fish, marine mammals, birds, and bats support human habitation, meaning the text is dealing with extant rather than extinct kinds
These points can guide us when we turn our attention to the scientific data.
DAY 6
And said God, "Let bring forth (yatsa) the earth creatures (nephesh) living (chay) according to their kinds - livestock (behemah) and creeping things (remes) and beasts (chay) of the earth according to their kinds." And it was so. 1:24 [Here an interlinear Hebrew-English translation is leveraged.]
And God made the beasts of the earth according to their kinds and the livestock according to their kinds, and everything that creeps on the ground according to its kind. And God saw that it was good. 1:25
Then God said, "Let us make man in our image, after our likeness. And let them have dominion (radah) over the fish (dagah) of the sea (yam) and over the birds (oph) of the heavens and over the livestock (behemah) and over all the earth and over every creeping thing (remes) that creeps (ramas) on the earth." 1:26
So God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them. 1:27
And God blessed them. And God said to them, "Be fruitful and multiply and fill the earth and subdue it, and have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the heavens and over every living thing that moves on the earth." 1:28
And God said, "Behold, I have given you every green plant (eseb) yielding seed that is on the face of all the earth, and every tree with seed in its fruit. You shall have them for food. And to every beast (chay) of the earth and to every bird of the heavens and to everything that creeps on the earth, everything that has the breath of life, I have given every green plant for food." And it was so. 1:29-30
And God saw everything that he had made, and behold, it was very good. And there was evening and there was morning, the sixth day. 1:31
Concerning Animals
The earth is ordained to bring forth living creatures (chay nephesh) according to their kinds.
yatsa translated bring forth literally means to go forth from or come from
nephesh indicates a living soul with mind, will, and emotions. (see mammalian neocortex)
chay means living, alive, lively or active creature.
eseb includes herbs, grass, and green plants; specifically seed-bearing plants in this case
We have already come across these terms talking about the fish. In the context of animals, this would indicate that mammals are being specified, but could also include some lizards. We can understand this when evaluating the word behemah which in general indicates livestock, especially when used as a distinctive from other animal kinds as is the case here. The narrative includes mankind's dominion over these animals and the most useful land animals to humans are mammals. Some are hunted, some are domesticated, and some are tamed for service.
Genesis 37:33 provides a useful comparison to the animals of Day 6. "...A fierce (ra, ra'ah) animal (chay) has devoured him. Joseph is without doubt torn to pieces."
The word translated fierce is the same word translated evil in the context of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. This is an indication that while God certainly created the fierce animals as well as the tame, the Day 6 account may be focused on the gentler creatures.
A word should be said about the earth bringing forth (yatsa) creatures. The land does not literally produce the animals in a spontaneous generation sort of way. What is meant is that the animals come from the land and the land provides a supportive habitat in which they can thrive.
The Blessing
In contrast to the birds (and bats) and fish (and whales), God does not include the animals in the specific blessing to be fruitful and multiply and have dominion. This blessing is aimed specifically at humans.
Instead, God gives the creatures and mankind green plants for food. This puts a focus on herbivores among the creatures identified in the Day 6 text.
What we learn from food laws about animals
In Genesis 9:2-4 we find creeping things (remes) referred to this way: "The fear of you and the dread of you shall be upon every beast of the earth and upon every bird of the heavens, upon everything that creeps (remes) on the ground and all the fish of the sea. Into your hand they are delivered. Every moving thing that lives shall be food for you. And as I gave you the green plants, I give you everything. But you shall not eat flesh with its life, that is its blood."
Animals that are easily frightened include wild herbivores (such as deer), birds, small herbivorous mammals such as rabbits, and fish. Beasts of the earth used here and in Genesis 1 may possibly exclude predators such as lions and bears that do not fear humans with the same kind of dread as these other animals.
The command regarding blood applies to the birds and beasts of the earth and creeping things (fish don't bleed in the same sense), indicating all are animals with blood. That rules out the inclusion of insects in the creeping things being described.
In Leviticus 11:2 we read, "Speak to the people of Israel, saying, These are the living things (chay) that you may eat among all the animals (behemah) that are on the earth...." And the text describes animals with hooves and paws, all of which are mammals, specifically placental mammals (to further distinguish these from marsupials and monotremes).
In Leviticus 11:29-30 we read, "And these are unclean to you among swarming things (sherets) that swarm (sharats) on the ground: the mole rat, the mouse, the great lizard of any kind, the gecko, the monitor lizards, the lizard, the sand lizard, and the chameleon."
Genesis 1 and 9 make a distinction between creeping things (remes) which may be eaten and swarming things (sharats) that may not be. Animals such a lizards are grouped with swarming things (sherets) as distinct from creeping things (remes).
From our analysis we can be certain that the focus of Day 6 is on mammals, with a special focus on herbivores.
Summary of Day 6
When considering the Hebrew text carefully, we can observe that Genesis 1 is specific rather than general in specifying what kinds of animals were created on Day 6, just as it was for Day 5. Again, the fact that Hebrew is not our native language makes the analysis seem harder than it really is.
The above analysis suggests that the text for Day 6 intends to paint the following picture for the reader:
- the earth becomes more productive, especially with regard to providing seed plants and fruit trees that support the proliferation of mammals in general
- active, wild herbivorous mammals (nephesh chay chay) suitable as game begin to proliferate
- small herbivorous mammals (nephesh chay remes) suitable for food or pelts begin to proliferate
- domesticatable herbivorous mammals (nephesh chay behemah) suitable for livestock begin to proliferate
- fierce, wild animals (ra'ah chay) are not specifically identified
- the specific blessing to be fruitful and multiply is directed to humankind and not the animals
- animals do not have a vacated space to fill (because fish and birds have already multiplied) but are blessed, along with birds, by green seed plants and fruit trees
- mankind does fill and multiply, because his unique function does not already fill the land
These points can guide us when we turn our attention to the scientific data.
Created Kinds and Their Proliferation
On the Third Day, God commanded that the earth support the production of the first plants (bryophytes) which where tender due to being low in lignin, but rich in green chlorophyll to green the barren ground. God commanded the production of seed plants that scatter their seeds abroad which would include gymnosperms and angiosperms. God commanded that trees bearing fruit would grow which would include woody angiosperms and some kinds of gymnosperms.
On the Fifth Day, God commanded that the waters support the abundant proliferation (swarms) of schooling, teleost fish and pods of whales in the oceans and flying birds, including bats, on the earth. God specifically blessed the birds and the fish to be fruitful and to multiply, filling vacant space. These are creatures over which man will have dominion and their function is to enhance the habitability of the world for mankind.
On the Sixth Day, God commanded that the earth support the production of various kinds of mammals, including specifically those that will serve as livestock. God does not specifically bless the mammals to be fruitful and multiply and fill vacated space. God does bless them, along with birds, with green seed plants and fruit trees so that they will thrive to the benefit of mankind.
Key Events in Earth's History
Interleaved Data - Biblical and Scientific
And there was evening and there was morning, the second day.
575 Ma - start of the Avalon radiation when the first animals started appearing in the marine fossil record. These soft-bodied animals do not fossilize easily and their discovery was more recent.
541 Ma - start of the Cambrian radiation when practically all major animal phyla started appearing in the marine fossil record. These hard-bodied animals fossilize easily and were discovered before the Avalon fauna.
515-448 Ma - tender green, seedless plants (deshe) colonize land
420 Ma - bony fish
382-358 Ma - plants producing seeds
400 Ma - ray-finned, bony fish
310 Ma - teleost, ray-finned, bony fish
300 Ma - mammal-like animals
237-201 Ma - origin of flowing plants (fruit-bearing seed plants)
220 Ma - schooling behavior in teleost fish
201-100 Ma - major radiation of flowering plants (fruit-bearing seed plants)
165-150 Ma - the first birds
113-100 Ma - fruit-bearing trees appear as part of the major radiation of fruit-bearing seed plants.
And there was evening and there was morning, the third day.
93 Ma - possible but contested origin of placental mammals
66 Ma - mass extinction of: dinosaurs, lizards and snakes, the first birds, many kinds of fish, marine reptiles, flying reptiles, many mammal-like creatures, many small mammals.
And there was evening and there was morning, the fourth day.
66 Ma - Ray-finned fish are the most diverse and ecologically dominant group of vertebrates on the planet. Crown teleosts (modern ray-finned fishes) came into their current dominant ecological role in pelagic ecosystems immediately following the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) mass extinction 66 million years ago by filling newly vacated ecological niches and marking the beginning of an "age of ray-finned fishes. The increase was sustained for the following 24 million years.
66 Ma - Early birds diversified throughout the Jurassic and Cretaceous, becoming capable fliers... but were decimated at the end-Cretaceous (K-Pg). After the mass extinction, modern birds (members of the avian crown group) explosively diversified, culminating in more than 10,000 species distributed worldwide today.
51 Ma - the origin of bats
34 Ma - modern whales exist of both toothed and baleen type
And there was evening and there was morning, the fifth day.
35-24 Ma - C4 photosynthesis arises across 60 different kinds of seed plants and fruit trees
23 Ma - rapid radiation of kinds of cattle (Family Bovidae)
10 Ma - rise of the African savana ecosystem from which early humans would emerge; functional habitability of the earth for human beings was created in an ordered system.
115-11.7 Ka - The Last Glacial Period occurs, a time during which fully modern humans take dominion on earth. At some point in this timeframe, God creates Adam and Eve.
And there was evening and there was morning, the sixth day.
The Final Analysis
Based on my view of creation narrative as a the history of functional initiation versus initial material origination, I believe that what may appear as discrepancies between science and the Bible can be resolved.
For example, the scientific facts supporting the conclusion that the first bony fish predates the first seed plants is no longer a point of contention. This is because the Bible is not describing the initial material origin of fish and plants, but rather it describes the initiation of their functional ascendency in an ordered ecosystem designed to support a habitat in which human beings can thrive.
This new understanding creates the opportunity for a major shift in how concordism between science and the Bible is constructed. Rather than a focus on the scientific concordism of material origins, we pivot to look at the historical concordism of functional initiation.
Under the older scheme, some believing scientists identified the Cambrian explosion of the first animals in the oceans that occurred 541 Ma with the start of the Fifth Day. But these animals, as important as they were, and as much a testament to God's handiwork as they are, did not take on the functional role assigned to the fish on Day 5. In fact, they subsequently went extinct. Breaking the link between the Cambrian Explosion and Day 5 frees us to construct a new alignment between the scientific record and the Biblical narrative.
There is exactly one time in all of Earth's history when the birds (including bats), and the fish (including whales) both began to multiply and fill the waters of the seas and to increase on the earth. That Day 5 event occurred in the aftermath of the K-Pg Extinction event that wiped the dinosaurs, and many other kinds of animals, off the earth and dramatically reduced the number of kinds among survivors. That reordering of all systems created vacated ecosystems. God purposefully filled those ecosystems with the express goal of creating a habitat for human beings. The flowering plants, seed plants, and fruit trees that God gave function to on Day 3 rode through the K-Pg extinction event and flourished in the aftermath. Between 66 Ma and 34 Ma, the Earth was a significantly warmer planet and all the events described in the Bible pertaining to Day 5 were accomplished.
Unlike the "immediate" and "explosive" multiplying of fish and bird kinds after the K-Pg, the multiplying of mammal kinds was a slower, steadier process with the specific kinds of animals that humans are most dependent upon and interactive with originating more recently. The transition at 34 Ma to a permanently cooler global climate was accompanied by the emergence of a new kind of photosynthesis in seed plants and fruit trees that was more efficient in this new cooler and more arid regime. While mammals had also diversified during Day 5 (66-34 Ma) into a wide range of kinds including bats and whales, God up-ended land mammals about 34 Ma at the start of Day 6. By seeding the world with C4 plants and grasses, He changed the dynamics of the global ecosystems.
Only under this new climate and with these new plants would the diversity of mammals and other animals over which human beings have dominion arise. The work of Day 6 had begun. Grasslands gave rise not just to the behema, remes, and chay of Day 6, but also to the erect primate form. Once perfected, God imbued the human form with a living and immortal spirit and the first human being was created, that is, given functional dominion to bear God's image on Earth. God placed this man, Adam, in a garden and the rest, as they say, is history.
Some may still complain that the Biblical text is too brief to accommodate a robust reconciliation with a scientific reconstruction of Earth's history. But I will leave you with a thought from John about our creator Jesus Christ:
Now Jesus did many other signs... which are not written in this book; but these are written so that you may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that by believing you may have life in his name. John 20:30-31
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REFERENCES
The timescale of early land plant evolution (March 2018)
515-470 Ma - "Land plants emerged in the middle-Cambrian-Early Ordovacian interval"
472-419 Ma - "Vascular plants emerged in the Late Ordovician-Selurian" interval.
"The establishment of plant life on land is one of the most significant evolutionary episodes in Earth history."
488-443 Ma - On the origin and evolution of lignin biosynthesis Origin of lignin supports stronger plants.
420 Ma - bony fish
400 Ma - ray-finned fish - 99% of the 30,000 extant fish species are ray-finned, bony fish
310 Ma - teleost fish - 96% of the 30,000 extant fish species are teleost, ray-finned, bony fish
300 Ma - animals with distinguishing characteristics: mammary glands, neocortex, fur or hair, and three middle ear bones
252-66 Ma - The first mammals also appear during the Mesozoic, but would remain small - less than 15 kg - until the Cenozoic.
237-201 Ma - Origin of angiosperms and the puzzle of the Jurassic gap (May 2019) "Angiosperms are by far the most species-rich clade of land plants... we dated the origin of the crown angiosperms to the Upper Triassic, with major angiosperm radiations occurring in the Jurassic (201-145 Ma) and Lower Cretaceous (145-100 Ma)."
220 Ma - schooling behavior in teleost fish (September 2018)
201 - 100 Ma - major angiosperm radiations
165-150 Ma - Origin of Birds
113-100 Ma - angiosperms (flowering, fruit-bearing plants gain woody characteristics)
93 Ma - potential origin of placental mammals
66 Ma - Mass extinction of lizards and snakes at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary (December 2012)
66 Ma - Mass Extinction and Adaptive Radiation in Lizards and Snakes: Evidence from Fossils and Molecular Data (July 2020)
66 Ma - New Age of Fishes initiated by the Cretaceous-Paleogene mass extinction (July 2015) "Ray-finned fish are the most diverse and ecologically dominant group of vertebrates on the planet... Our data suggest that crown teleosts (modern ray-finned fishes) came into their current dominant ecological role in pelagic ecosystems immediately following the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) mass extinction 66 million years ago by filling newly vacated ecological niches and marking the beginning of an "age of ray-finned fishes." Our study is, to our knowledge, the first geographically comprehensive, high-resolution study of marine vertebrate communities across the extinction." The increase in the size and abundance of ray-finned fish teeth is sustained for the following 24 million years.
66 Ma - The Origin and Diversification of Birds (October 2015) "Birds evolved from theropod dinosaurs during the Jurassic (around 165-150 million years ago)... Early birds diversified throughout the Jurassic and Cretaceous, becoming capable fliers... but were decimated at the end-Cretaceous (K-Pg) extinction alongside their close dinosaurian relatives. After the mass extinction, modern birds (members of the avian crown group) explosively diversified, culminating in more than 10,000 species distributed worldwide today.
Evolutionary History of Grasses
56-23 Ma - Eocene and Oligocene - The delayed rise of present-day mammals (March 2007) "Did the end-Cretaceous mass extinction event, by eliminating non-avian dinosaurs and most of the existing fauna, trigger the evolutionary radiation of present-day mammals? Here we construct, date and analyse a species-level phylogeny of nearly all extant Mammalia to bring a new perspective to this question. Our analyses of how extant lineages accumulated through time show that net per-lineage diversification rates barely changed across the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary. Instead, these rates spiked significantly with the origins of the currently recognized placental superorders and orders approximately 93 million years ago, before falling and remaining low until accelerating again throughout the Eocene and Oligocene epochs. Our results show that the phylogenetic ‘fuses’ leading to the explosion of extant placental orders are not only very much longer than suspected previously, but also challenge the hypothesis that the end-Cretaceous mass extinction event had a major, direct influence on the diversification of today’s mammals."
51 Ma - Fossil Evidence and the Origin of Bats
34 Ma - origin of modern whales
35-24 Ma - The evolution of C4 photosynthesis
A Grass-Fed Evolution? Altered Environment Fueled Human Change
23-2.5 Ma - Miocene - Sixty-six million years along the road of mammalian ecomorphological specialization (May 2019) "The tropical-like forests of the Paleocene and early Eocene were replaced, following higher-latitude cooling, by seasonal woodlands and scrublands in the late Eocene and Oligocene. This was followed by the diversification of savanna-like grasslands in the warming of the Miocene that turned to prairie in the cooling and drying of the Plio-Pleistocene. The changing dominant habitats correlated with (and probably drove) the evolutionary changes in the animals inhabiting them. Increasingly specialized forms (hypercarnivores, grazers, cursors) took advantage of new ecological opportunities, and less specialized ecomorphological types (omnivores, generalized quadrupeds) became less common."
23 Ma - Molecular Insights into the Evolution of the Family Bovidae: A Nuclear DNA Perspective (July 2001) "bovid subfamilies... had a rapid radiation dating to... 23 Ma"
10 Ma - Synchronous rise of African C4 ecosystems 10 million years ago in the absence of aridification
How Did Africa's Grasslands Get Started?
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